Yearbook of Kutaisi Ilia Chavchavadze Public Library
"Yearbook" is an annual peer-reviewed scientific publication of Kutaisi Ilia Chavchavadze Public Library. The journal publishes proceedings read at international scientific conferences organized by Kutaisi Ilia Chavchavadze Public Library, as well as peer-reviewed Kartvelological (linguistic, literary, folklore, historiographical, cultural, ethnological) research.
Kutaisi Ilia Chavchavadze Public Library
Under the License CC BY 4.0 Attribution 4.0 International Deed, the authors retain all rights. The authors grant a publisher the exclusive right to publish the work for the first time, but they do not assign ownership.
Daniel Piphia was a public figure of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, deeply devoted to his homeland. He was a fervent fighter for Georgia’s independence and served as the responsible propagandist of the Zugdidi District Committee of the Democratic Republic of Georgia. At the age of twenty-eight, he fell victim to the repressions of the Bolshevik regime, unjustly accused and executed in September 1924. Notably, his creative works survived Bolshevik censorship, saw the light of day, and allowed us to experience the true power of his poetry. We are captivated by his poems, epics, prose, translations, and other writings. It is undeniable that Daniel Piphia spent his combative spirit in the crucible of fighting injustice, earning him the enduring reputation of a warrior uncompromising against evil. This article does not attempt to present the entirety of D. Piphia’s oeuvre. Our focus is limited to his poetic texts, in which the clarity and purity of the source convey profound love for the homeland and the struggle for a better future. Thus, Daniel Piphia is a figure burdened by a heavy life. Orphan hood, material hardship, and health problems did not diminish his boundless love for his country or his zeal for the fight toward a brighter future-a fight for which he ultimately sacrificed his life.
Mose Gogiberidze – From Guria to a Great Philosopher
Professor Mose Gogiberidze is one of the foremost representatives of the Georgian philosophical school. He was born in 1897 in the village of Kvenobani, in the Chokhatauri district of Guria. He received his initial education at the Ozurgeti City School and later continued his studies in Germany, at the universities of Berlin and Marburg. There, he successfully defended his doctoral dissertation on the topic: „The Theory of Solomon Maimon’s Thought in Relation to Kantian Philosophy and the Subsequent Development of Logical Idealism“. His dissertation was highly significant, critically addressing idealism, particularly opposing the traditional theories of the Marburg School and logical idealism. In 1922, having completed his education in Germany, Professor Gogiberidze returned to Georgia and began teaching at the newly established university, where he continued his work until his death, leaving a lasting impact on the development of philosophy in Georgia, particularly in the area of dialectics of nature. In addition, he provided philosophical education at various higher institutions and also delivered lectures in Kutaisi. One notable aspect of Mose Gogiberidze’s philosophical work is that he was the first to write the history of philosophy in the Georgian language, particularly the historical sections. He paid careful attention to philosophical issues directly connected to the development of Georgian philosophical thought and Georgian culture more broadly. Special emphasis is given to the classical period of Georgian philosophy, associated with the work of Ioane Petritsi, including the philosophical problems of the Rustaveli era. Mose Gogiberidze is recognized as one of the greatest Georgian thinkers. His philosophical works continue to be a subject of study and discussion among subsequent generations of philosophers. In 1997, Tbilisi State University commemorated the centenary of his birth with extensive celebrations.
Egnate Ninoshvili’s Autobiography (A Short Diary) and the Problematics of Personal Letters
Egnate Ninoshvili’s works vividly reflect, with full rigor and intensity, the harsh conditions of ordinary people in one region of Georgia, Guria, which profoundly affected their health and appearance. This study analyzes Ninoshvili’s Autobiography (A Short Diary), the title of which already indicates the author’s intent. Specififically, the short diary recounts the early stages of the writer’s life, capturing difficult periods marked by poverty, orphan hood, and hardship. Alongside the Autobiography (A Short Diary), Ninoshvili’s personal letters are particularly valuable for highlighting certain issues. In this study, we focus on two personal letters, each addressing distinct problems and offering rich insight. These letters were addressed to Iakob Gogebashvili and Giorgi Tsereteli. They complement the material presented in the Autobiography and provide additional information about Ninoshvili’s personality, views, and way of life. The topic is significant because it presents Ninoshvili’s perspectives across different areas of reflection. The aim of this research is to reveal the writer’s worldview not only from the standpoint of his contemporaries but also from the perspective of today’s national and global context, thereby emphasizing the value and significance of the issues reflected in his work.
The role of Guria in the struggle for freedom and independence of the Georgian people, the national uprising of 1924 and subsequent struggles until 1953
In Georgia, as in many countries and for numerous historians worldwide, the description of a nation’s key historical stages is often dominated by the presentation of „great figures“, who are frequently portrayed as the „saviors“ of the country. Consequently, history is reduced to biographical accounts without analysis of the historical, economic, social, or other specific contexts. In Georgia, discussions of particular issues most often mention Vakhtang Gorgasali, David the Builder, Queen Tamar, Erekle II, Ilia Chavchavadze, and sometimes Akaki Tsereteli or Ekvtime Takaishvili. Some of these figures have even been canonized by the Georgian Church. In my view, such a historical perspective is outdated and potentially dangerous, as it distorts a complex and constantly evolving historical phenomenon. The present study allows me to explain why the Guria region, through its inhabitants, played a concrete and significant role in the history of the Georgian nation. I aim to employ a materialist methodology, based on facts and their study from multiple perspectives, rather than on ideological misconceptions. Are the people of Guria inherently more intelligent? Are they Georgia’s best citizens? No. They possess the „Georgian intellect“, a Georgian sensibility, and love for their homeland and region, as all Georgians do. However, objective, material, geographical, traditional, and historical circumstances compelled them to perform their role in the history of the Georgian nation and the broader history of Georgia.
In the nineteenth century, the Caucasus became comparatively safer for travel, which prompted numerous foreign scholars to undertake journeys to Georgia. Their objective was to investigate the country’s natural and geographical conditions, the socio-economic circumstances of its population, its industrial potential, as well as its cultural milieu. These visits were undertaken not merely for the fulfillment of personal interests, but also in the execution of assignments commissioned by their respective states. At that time, Georgia remained virtually unknown to Europe, and consequently many of these journeys were of a predominantly introductory and exploratory character. European travelers convey the circumstances of the time with varying degrees of accuracy. They recount not only what they themselves observed, but also frequently cite the accounts of others, or rely on earlier sources - most often the notes of Guldenstädt and Montpereux-which themselves often contain inaccuracies. For this reason, great caution is required when examining such sources. Foreign travelers frequently exhibit a pan-European bias: they view reality through the lens of the society to which they belong and often act as agents of the political agendas of the states that dispatched them to travel and to investigate local conditions. Thus, the testimonies of foreign travelers constitute an important primary source, but only when approached with rigorous critical scrutiny. In 2024, my book Kutaisi and Imereti in the Accounts of Nineteenth-Century European Travelers was published. Among the twenty-two European travelers discussed in this work is the little-known and enigmatic figure Carlo Serena, who published eleven extensive articles on Georgia in the renowned French journal Le Tour du Monde between 1880 and 1884. In the 1880 issue appeared his account of travels in Imereti; in 1881, his impressions of Samegrelo; in 1882, his journeys through Samurzaqano and Abkhazia, followed by Kakheti; and finally, in 1884, his article describing travels in Guria, Gori, Borjomi, and Akhaltsikhe. The latter contains highly valuable information on Guria, which, through the present study, is introduced here for the first time to the Georgian readership.
I Gurian Lexicon in Relation to MingrelianI Mingrelian (Based on Gigo Sharashidze’s „Gurian Lexicon“)
Gurian speech is highly diverse. Its immediate proximity to Adjara, Imereti, and Mingrelia has significantly shaped the richness of the Gurian dialect and explains the presence of similar linguistic phenomena. This study examines Gurian lexicon in relation to Mingrelian and highlights the shared dialectal material between the two. The analysis draws upon Gigo Sharashidze’s Gurian Lexicon, presented in the volume Lexicons of Georgian Languages, I: Gurian, Upper Imeretian, and Lechkhumi Lexicons (Tbilisi, 1938). Gigo Sharashidze (1848–1932) spent many years collecting lexical material in various villages of Guria, producing a corpus of considerable linguistic interest. As noted in the lexicon, “many words that have been forgotten over time due to changes in everyday life are no longer in use, yet they remain of great importance for the history of the language” (p. VII). The lexicon also contains words “that have no literary parallels or equivalents in the standard language” and includes loanwords from foreign languages such as Turkish, Greek, and Persian. The study revealed several interesting results. As expected, the Gurian dialect contains a significant number of lexical units that are also characteristic of Mingrelian. In many cases, these words are similar both formally and semantically, though in some instances they exhibit distinct semantic nuances. The paper analyzes forms such as burdgashi, gachichineba, dafranguli, dudga, komchi, koghona, mosargaleba, partqali, pichvi, kereto, tsakhtsi, chicho, khvantsali, among others. The shared lexicon between Gurian and Mingrelian can be explained both by common origins and by geographic proximity and interaction. Many of the words analyzed, besides occurring in Mingrelian, are also found in other Georgian dialects (Imeretian, Gurian, Adjara, Kakheti, Tushetian), which is natural. These are generally of common Georgian origin and have maintained formal-semantic similarity across several dialects. The common dialectal lexicon between Gurian and Mingrelian (and other dialects) demonstrates that these speech varieties are part of a single, unified Georgian linguistic system. Individual regional dialects, however, display unique characteristics, reflecting broader processes of divergence and convergence within the language.
Leloburti in Guria: Tradition and Cultural Consciousness
Guria is one of Georgia’s most distinctive regions, where folk culture, traditional lifestyles, and social relations retain unique characteristics. For centuries, traditional holidays and folk games have held great importance here, serving not only as entertainment but also as a means of strengthening social bonds and preserving communal identity. Among the diverse traditions, Leloburti occupies a prominent place. This ancient Georgian game, as a vivid example of both physical and spiritual unity passed down through generations, functions not only as a sporting competition but also as a cultural phenomenon. It reflects the historical, social, and cultural consciousness of the people and embodies the values of Gurian society—courage, solidarity, and collective effort toward a common goal. In this study, through metaphorical analysis, the origin of the term Leloburti and the brief history of the establishment and development of this sport in Guria are examined, along with its role and significance. The study explores how it creates and maintains local cultural identity and the sense preserved in its symbolism. Analyzing this ritual allows for a deeper understanding of its integration and significance within contemporary social and cultural contexts. The article also highlights the role of metaphor as one of the productive means for forming secondary names. It examines how, when the semantic scope of a word expands, the perception model of the world transforms it first into a grand metaphor and then into a term grounded in a historical event (Danelia 2023: 19–23). Through the analysis of Leloburti, the study demonstrates how a sporting tradition can become a symbol of cultural unity and social continuity. Additionally, it explores the transformation of Leloburti over time and its signifificance in contemporary Georgian culture. The game is compared to the English national sport of rugby, which has achieved global popularity. The study employs ethnographic, historical, and cultural analysis methods, enabling a comprehensive examination of the Leloburti ritual within a broader context.
Some Issues of Attribution of Weapons Produced in Guria (19th Century – 1920s)
Various sources describe Guria, together with neighboring Adjara, as a major center for the production of high-quality weapons. The Adjara-Guria weapons production hub, located in the Black Sea region of western Georgia, rivals only Tbilisi and Dagestan in terms of both scale and the high quality of its manufactured products. Despite this, the history of weapons production in Guria and the weapons made there remain almost unexplored. The individual characteristics of locally produced weapons and their regional variations are poorly documented, making it difficult to identify and accurately attribute weapons in museum and private collections. As a result, weapons made in Guria are often mistakenly attributed to other regions. This situation leaves largely unexamined a significant portion of material cultural heritage characteristic of Georgian ethnography, the study of which is both necessary and urgent. During the Soviet period, the study of historical weapons received little to no attention or was conducted with strong bias. After Georgia regained independence, in the absence of proper control, many high-quality historical weapons—some produced in Guria—were exported abroad by private individuals, making their study nearly impossible. Research on unidentified or partially identified weapons preserved in museum collections has also been complicated by bureaucratic mechanisms and other factors. For the identifification and subsequent attribution of weapons produced in Guria, it is necessary to establish a unifified information database that includes all indicators essential for identification: the historical context of the weapon’s production, ornamentation, proportions (geometry), markings, inscriptions, manufacturing techniques, and the arrangement and shapes of individual components. Such a database would facilitate future research and help shed light on this fascinating aspect of Georgia’s material cultural heritage.
The Confrontation Between National and Anti-National Forces in Georgian Studies during the Preparations for the 1924 Uprising
This article examines the attacks by agents of Russian policy against representatives of Georgian scholarship during the preparations for the well-known August 1924 uprising. The confrontation between national and anti-national forces was particularly acute within the intellectual sphere, specifically: 1. In opposition to the official authorities, members of the leading Georgian intelligentsia demonstrated unity in advancing independent Georgian studies free from political influence, focusing on key issues such as: - Promoting research on Georgian antiquities within a broad international scientific framework; - Attracting foreign, especially American, scholars to conduct archaeological excavations at historically significant sites, such as Mtskheta and Nakalakhevi; Strengthening Georgian universities by recruiting nationally minded professors. 2. The Soviet authorities relied on the Academy of Sciences to counter Georgian scholarship, notably through the influential Georgian scientist N. Mari, whose protest led to the cancellation of the American archaeological expedition at Mtskheta and Nakalakhevi. 3. The complete alignment of the Academy of Sciences with Soviet authorities is evidenced by a 1924 article published under the pseudonym “Chvenis” (“Ours”) in the press, which reflected several aspects of the Soviet position: - Open hostility toward representatives of national scholarship; - Support for scholars serving Bolshevik ideological interests. - Soviet ideology left no choice for individuals of exceptional talent, who, willingly or unwillingly, became part of the state apparatus. 4. University professors accepted the challenge of defending Georgian scholarship. In a response prepared on behalf of the Tbilisi University administration, Ivane Javakhishvili exposed both the scholar Niko Mari, hostile to Georgian cultural and educational initiatives, and his political supporters in the authorities, who in subsequent years intensified the struggle against Tbilisi University and the nationally minded faculty. The conclusions drawn from this research, we believe, will provide valuable insight for specialists and interested parties working in the field of Soviet Georgian studies.
The Struggle Against Soviet Occupation (Zaira Arsenishvili’s “Va, Sofelo…” and Nodar Macharashvili’s “Keipi Sololaki”)
In 1921, following three years of independence, Georgia was occupied by Soviet Russia. The Georgian people did not easily accept this treacherous occupation. Small armed units were formed, initiating a resistance against the occupiers. The August 1924 uprising ended tragically, yet it remains a symbol of heroism, defiance, and uncompromising resistance. The uprising’s leader, Kakutsa Cholokashvili, was branded a bandit by the Soviet authorities, and even the mention of his name was prohibited. Only in the 1980s and 1990s did it become possible to speak openly and fearlessly about this uprising and its various aspects, which naturally found reflection in Georgian literature. One notable novel portraying Kakutsa Cholokashvili and his unit’s fight against the occupiers, as well as the cruelty inflicted on national figures by the ruling power, is Zaira Arsenishvili’s „Va, Sofelo…“ . The uprising was preceded by smaller skirmishes, whose participants helped lay the groundwork for the August 1924 events. Among those affected by the 1923 repressions was General Kote Abkhazi, a key historical figure and the protagonist of Nodar Macharashvili’s long narrative „Keipi Sololaki“, which skillfully intertwines historical facts with the author’s creative imagination. Crucially, both works vividly present, with artistic credibility, two opposing worldviews and conflicting ideas: loyalty to the homeland versus servitude to the enemy. These texts are interconnected by invisible threads, reflecting Georgian writers’ enduring interest in events of a century ago. They remind us that the idea of the struggle for freedom is timeless and continues to hold relevance today.
Metaphorical Phraseologisms Based on Giorgi Kekelidze’s „Gurian Diaries“
Phraseologisms are an important source for linguistic research. They play a significant role in revealing the distinctive features of a language, which are connected to both socio-historical processes and individual or collective experience. In addition to reflecting a nation’s cultural and historical experience, phraseologisms demonstrate the creative potential of a language and the dynamics of its development. The aim of this study is to examine the distinctive features of the language of the writer Giorgi Kekelidze, as reflected in his Gurian Diaries, with a focus on metaphorical (neologistic) phraseologisms. It is noteworthy that contemporary prose exhibits a tendency toward the creation of innovative and unique phraseologisms and figurative expressions, which constitute a significant segment in the artistic transformation and expression of language’s evolutionary processes. As the American linguist Edward Sapir observed, „Language is the guide to culture in social reality“ (Sapir, 1929). In this context, the creation and use of new phraseologisms can be seen as a process of cultural innovation that reflects changing social values and worldviews. The metaphorical phraseologisms created by the contemporary Georgian writer and public figure Giorgi Kekelidze represent a significant aspect of language development. They not only enrich the language with new expressive means but also reflect contemporary society’s worldview and cultural values. They demonstrate the close connection between Georgian culture and nature and the capacity to perceive the poetic dimensions of everyday phenomena. These „newly born“ phraseologisms establish an original stylistic voice for the author. It is noteworthy that many of these expressions are not yet included in existing lexicons. Particularly significant are metaphorical phraseologisms that represent semantically parallel variants of existing phraseologisms, which can indeed be considered novel contributions of the author. For example: kanma ofli moisxa – literally „sweat poured on the skin“, meaning „he/she became frightened“; cf. tsivma oflma daasxa – „he/she became extremely frightened, agitated, trembled“ (Shavokhia, 1955: 114). ena migebt pirs? – „the inability to speak“, cf. dana pirs ver uxdes – „lifeless, overwhelmed by grief or anger, unable to speak due to sorrow“ (Shavokhia, 1950: 89). The present study employs a contextual analysis method, drawing on semantic, lexicological, and stylistic perspectives. The material under analysis has been examined and differentiated according to semantic criteria, and conditionally divided into authorial phraseological units reflecting either natural phenomena or human inner experiences. This research is significant not only for revealing the linguistic mosaic of the specific writer Giorgi Kekelidze but also for studying new linguistic trends in Georgian literature more broadly. Kekelidze’s language remains largely unexplored, and the study of his metaphorical, authorial phraseologisms represents a preliminary attempt in this area.
The Gurian Material of the „Shota Rustaveli Cultural Campaign“
This article examines the folklore project „Shota Rustaveli Cultural Campaign“, implemented in 1934–1935 by the newspaper Kolkheti (Collectivization), which was part of the broader folkloric celebrations for Shota Rustaveli’s jubilee in 1937 within the Georgian context. The Rustaveli Cultural Campaign represents the first instance in which such an initiative became a subject of scholarly inquiry within Georgian folklore studies. The campaign aimed to collect new poetry with socialist content from peasant poets and publish these works in a peasant-oriented newspaper. The poems gathered during the campaign were subsequently compiled into collections, which continued to be published into the 1980s as expressions of the popular spirit. The study focuses specifically on poems collected from the Guria region. The research shows that, compared to other regions, Guria displayed the least enthusiasm for the newspaper’s initiative, as evidenced by the relative scarcity of Gurian poems both in the newspaper and in later published collections. Moreover, a small number of Gurian poems survived in the archives of the newspaper Kolkheti held at the Literature Museum; these were never published, as their ambiguous meanings were blocked by editorial decisions. The material selected for publication was curated by the journalist Akaki Chkhonia, who edited the poems according to his own criteria and, as a committed communist, prioritized works with socialist themes. The campaign revealed the identities of numerous peasant poets who wrote on Soviet topics. However, the publication of these poems alongside their folk oral traditions led to a methodological error in Georgian folklore studies: the folklorist Mikheil Chikovani erroneously introduced the term „author-narrator“, which is incongruous with folklore, alongside the traditional concept of the narrator. Despite justified criticism of the Rustaveli Cultural Campaign during its implementation, it had a significant impact on Georgian folklore studies. In practice, it established a comprehensive and extensive database of Soviet-era Georgian folklore. Both the organization of the campaign and its outcomes clearly demonstrate that Soviet folklore in Georgia emerged primarily through institutional mechanisms rather than organically from popular traditions.
Kakutsa Cholokashvili in Georgian Novels and Publicist Writings (Based on Rostom Chkheidze’s novel „Black Chokha“ and Shalva Amirejibi’s letters)
Kakutsa Cholokashvili, a national hero of Georgia, is recognized as a symbol of twentieth-century Georgian independence and the struggle for freedom. Under the Soviet regime, his figure could scarcely appear in literary texts, with the exception of émigré literature and the poetry of his contemporary, Mikha Khelashvili. As is well known, during the 1990s, Cholokashvili became an emblematic source of inspiration for the national liberation movement, and subsequently his figure was incorporated into mainstream Georgian literature. A prime example is Rostom Chkheidze’s biographical novel „Black Chokha“, in which the historical context aligns fully with the author’s literary intent: to present historical figures as phenomena regulating the national conscience. The novel demonstrates the biographical form as an effective medium for exploring a character’s intellectual world and restoring disrupted national memory. Because the author relies on historical facts and demonstrates a thorough understanding of Georgia’s socio-political context during Cholokashvili’s life, this study also examines Shalva Amirejibi’s publicist letters, which recount notable facts about Cholokashvili and highlight his significance in the struggle for state independence. This dual approach allows us to appreciate not only the psychoemotional impact of the novel but also the broader importance of Cholokashvili’s persona in shaping national and state-oriented thought.
The Guria (Ozurgeti) Detachment in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878
The Georgian people never ceased their struggle to reclaim the southwestern territories of Georgia seized by the Ottoman Empire; however, a politically fragmented and weakened country lacked the strength to do so. The situation began to change in the early nineteenth century, when Russia undertook active measures to dominate the Caucasus. Its expansionist ambitions, seeking influence in the Caucasus and along the Black Sea at the expense of Ottoman territories, coincided with the objective interests of the local populations, including Georgians and Armenians, as these areas were historically theirs. In the 1870s, the Balkan crisis triggered another war between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. People from all regions of Georgia enthusiastically joined the conflict, seeing it as an opportunity to liberate historical southern Georgian lands from Ottoman control. The inhabitants of Guria were particularly active, having first-hand knowledge of the hardships under Ottoman rule. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, one of the key directions on the Caucasian front was the offensive toward Batumi. It was along this front that the military unit known as the Guria (Ozurgeti) detachment operated. Based on archival materials and press reports, this study examines the participation of the Guria (Ozurgeti) detachment in the military operations of the war.
The study of surnames by region of Georgia has a special scientific and practical importance. The words and expressions woven into it. It contains important information for linguistics, as well as for the history, ethnography and archeology of Georgia. Clarifying the specific period of origin, migration and localization of surnames is problematic and requires careful study. The purpose of the research of the presented scientific article is to identify the surnames with the root „ber“ common in Guria, to study their structural composition, semantics and etymology. The study of surnames with the root „ber“ is closely related to the past and present of Guria. Therefore, the work analyzes the meaning of the word „ber“ in Georgian dictionaries, dialectal and ethnographic materials and historical documents chronologically in relation to the present. „Beri“ is a polysemantic word and denotes: 1. an elderly person; 2. a nun; 3. a son; 4. an infant; 5. a child consecrated to an icon. Several models of surnames with a ber-component have been identified in Guruli: 1. Simple-rooted (ber + dze) surnames: Beridze, Berishvili. The surnames suggest a personal name: beri 2. Surnames formed from names with a simple stem -el declension-producing affix: Berseladze, Bersenadze. Surnames suggest human names: Ber-s-el-a → Ber-sen-a. El → en alternation. S- is a sign of dative inflection. 3. Compound-stemmed surnames. The Ber - component is in second place: Gigiberidze (← Gogi + Beri + Dze), Gogaberashvili (← Goga + Bera + Chhilbi), Tavberidze (← Tav + Beri + Dze), Sulaberidze (Sula + Beri + Dze), Jamberidze (← Jan + Beri + Dze), Machaberidze (Macha + Beri + Dze)... Surnames are related to human names: Gigi (Gagishvili, Gigashvili), Goga (Gogashvili, Gogiashvili), Tavi (Tavadze), Sula (Sulashvili), Jano (Janiashvili), Macha (Machaidze) or Matsa (Matsaberidze).... 4. In the composite surname, the letter „ber“ is represented by certain phonetic changes: a) with the alternation „i←e“: Gvibiridze (←Gviberidze)... We can have the alternation „i ←e“ in the surnames: Kobiridze (←Ko+ Beridze). The surname of similar origin is Koberidze. It is possible that the surname of analogous origin is Koidze. b) with the alternation „a←e“: Gumbaridze (←Gumbaridze)... The surnames of the inhabitants of Guria are suggested by place names: Saberdzao (←sa-beridze-o. sowing); Beridzeouli (←beridze-eul-i. settlement); Saberdzao (←sa-beridze-o. sowing place); Berulava (hill); Gogiberiskari (hill); Sakoberidzeo (forest). The masculine gender of one’s own name, son, or child, expresses the semantics of the root ber attested in surnames. Such a tendency is a common Georgian linguistic phenomenon and is still observed in Georgian dialects today. The conclusions obtained as a result of the study of the issue are important for the diachronic analysis of Georgian lexicology, onomastics, and, in general, key issues related to surnames.
Reflection on the August 1924 Uprising in the Emigrant Publication „Mamuli“ – „La Patria“
Periodicals published by the Georgian diaspora in the 20th century constitute an integral part of the cultural heritage of émigré communities. These publications, issued abroad over different years and with varying frequency, consistently reflected the cultural and social conditions of Georgia, as well as aspects of both its distant and recent history. Georgian-language journals and newspapers produced outside the country preserve the reflections of both prominent and lesser-known émigré authors on the history of their homeland and on the tragic events of their time. Studying this heritage is significant not only for investigating the national past and recognizing the contributions of compatriots living and working abroad but also for drawing insights relevant to contemporary challenges facing Georgia. Research on the archives of Georgian émigrés has intensified since the late 20th century. Considerable studies and numerous noteworthy monographs have been published; however, many individual publications and authors still require detailed examination. Among these is Mamuli / La Patria, published under the editorship of Viktor Nozadze in Buenos Aires, Argentina, between 1951 and 1953. According to its publishers, Mamuli is „a collection of native history, literature, and culture“. Almost all articles in the collection address Georgia’s ongoing struggle against both the old and modernized Russian Empire. Several works reflect on the bloody events of the August 1924 Uprising. In particular, Akaki Papava’s article Thoughts on the Days of August (Mamuli, No. 3, 1952) is dedicated to this uprising. The publication broadly emphasizes the continuity of the Georgian nation’s national and political life, tracing its origins over 2,000 years and noting its disruption in the early 19th century. It highlights the restoration of Georgian independence in 1918, which was recognized by Soviet Russia on May 7, 1920, along with Poland, Finland, and the Baltic republics. It also underscores international recognition of Georgian sovereignty by countries including the United Kingdom, Belgium, France, Italy, Germany, Argentina, and others. Mamuli stresses that Georgia had a constitution adopted by its Constituent Assembly, guaranteeing full political freedom and human rights-a sovereign state that was subsequently invaded by Soviet Russia in 1921. In this context, reflections on the August 1924 Uprising interpret it as the final stage of these earlier rebellions while suggesting that future resistance would require a qualitatively new model of struggle, preparing the nation to reclaim freedom when favorable circumstances arise.
Noe Khomeriki – A Patriot Devoted to Freedom
Journalist, Georgian Social-Democrat, and Minister of Agriculture of the Democratic Republic of Georgia, Noe (Naum) Khomeriki was born in the village of Mikel-Gabriel in the Ozurgeti district of the Kutaisi Governorate—present-day Shroma. The life of this young Gurian was closely connected with Kutaisi, where, alongside enrollment in an agricultural school, he actively participated in the Social-Democratic labor movement. After completing his studies, Khomeriki gained practical experience in his native Guria, working at the farm of Mikheil Nakashidze. Concurrently, he took part in local peasant uprisings, which resulted in his imprisonment in Kutaisi for several months. The determined young man continued his revolutionary activities in Batumi. Due to persecution by the gendarmerie, he returned to Kutaisi, where he became the chief organizer of the Imereti Committee of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers’ Party. Khomeriki contributed to the press in Kutaisi under the pseudonyms „Musha Khu-zi“ and „Musha Khunkhuzhi“. He authored the brochure To the Village Workers and a study on the peasant movement in Guria, The Peasant Movement in Guria. Despite multiple exiles and imprisonments, Khomeriki never wavered from his chosen path. As a member of the National Council of Georgia and the Transcaucasian Sejm, as well as Minister of Labor, Roads, and Agriculture in the Parliament of the Democratic Republic of Georgia, he actively participated in agrarian reforms. Following the Soviet occupation of Georgia, Khomeriki took refuge in Istanbul and returned clandestinely to Georgia at the end of October 1922. He was arrested by the Cheka on November 9, 1923, and refused to provide testimony. One year later, together with other Georgian political leaders, he was executed at an undisclosed location.
The Georgian Emigrant Newspaper „Akhali Sakartvelo“ and the 1924 Uprising
The defeat of the August 1924 uprising, which aimed to restore Georgia’s state independence, and the severe repressive policies implemented by the Soviet authorities in its aftermath had a significant impact on the national and political outlook of Georgian émigrés. Specifically, following the occupation of Georgia by Soviet Russia in February 1921, a small portion of émigrated Georgian politicians were compelled to adjust to the prevailing circumstances and to regard the country’s liberation from the Soviet Empire as an unattainable goal. One particularly vivid example of this phenomenon is the radical metamorphosis in the political outlook of Grigol Veshapeli (real surname Veshapidze, 1891–1926) during the period leading up to the 1924 uprising. After emigrating following the Soviet occupation, he actively engaged in anti-Soviet propaganda. However, following the uprising’s defeat, he purposefully shifted to promoting the return of Georgian émigrés to Georgia and establishing cooperation with the Soviet authorities. To this end, he extensively utilized the newspaper Akhal Sakartvelo, which he edited and which was published in Paris and Berlin. The evident result of Veshapeli’s active collaboration with Soviet authorities is not only confirmed by the fact that Akhal Sakartvelo functioned as a periodical strongly promoting Soviet ideology (published 1924–1926 in Paris and Berlin) but also by its unrestricted circulation in Georgia. Consequently, Veshapeli—previously considered an active organizer in the struggle for Georgian independence—was branded by fellow émigrés as a Soviet-influenced agent. This radical shift in Veshapeli’s national and political convictions is clearly evidenced by the numerous articles he and his associates published in the newspaper. Through these publications, the authors openly expressed their pro-Soviet stance and actively encouraged Georgian émigrés to return home and establish collaboration with the new authorities. As a natural consequence of Veshapeli’s radical transformation, tensions with other Georgian émigrés escalated, culminating in his assassination on June 10, 1926. The articles published in Akhal Sakartvelo can be divided into two main categories: first, contributions by émigré authors; and second, submissions from Georgia, whose authors sharply condemned the uprising, labeling it an adventurist endeavor, and demanded the harshest punishment for its organizers. Collectively, these writings provide a nuanced insight into the positions of specific Georgian émigrés—whether openly or covertly aligned with Soviet authorities—regarding the realities created in the aftermath of the 1924 uprising.
The Italian Historian and Diplomat Luigi Villari on Guria
Among the foreign sources on Georgian history, a particularly valuable place is held by the work of the Italian historian and diplomat Luigi Villari (1876–1959), Fire and Sword in the Caucasus, first published in London in 1906. Notably, most of Villari’s works on different countries are based directly on his personal observations and experiences, which enhances the reliability and significance of the information they contain. The merit of the aforementioned book lies precisely in this: Fire and Sword in the Caucasus represents a documentary account of Villari’s impressions during his travels in Georgia in 1905. The work is an especially valuable foreign source because it describes and characterizes numerous Georgian towns and regions. In the present study, attention is focused specifically on the passages of Villari’s book that detail the events in Georgia during the revolutionary upheavals of 1905, with particular emphasis on developments in the Guria region.
Structural-semantic variants of some word-forms in Gurian
The study of dialect, as one of the subsystems of the language system, is of great importance for the development of language. Among the dialects of the Georgian language, Gurian holds a special place. Information about it dates back to the 18th century. It has been studied quite well. Many works have been devoted to Gurian dialect, the authors of which discussed it as individual phenomena characteristic of Gurian itself, as well as its relationship to other dialects of the Georgian language and the general Georgian level. The objective of our research is to identify dialectal varieties, in particular, structural-semantic variants of lexical units in Gurian and analyze them on the basis of comparison and reconciliation with the data of the Georgian literary language and other dialects. Despite the fact that this issue has been studied before, this topic does not lose its relevance to this day. In addition, research at the level of lexicology is necessary not only from the lexicographic point of view, but also from the point of view of the history of the language. Taking into account the data of the existing scientific literature and lexical materials about the Gurian dialect, the paper discusses the structural-semantic variants of some word forms in relation to other dialects of the Georgian language. We will distinguish between both the noun and the verb forms and other lexical units in their semantic field, such as, for example, nuskha (list) > aghnuskhva (to list), monuskhva (listing)… Manana (A silkworm that is stunted and late to emerge from the cocoon) > gamomananeba (Separately separating manana worms, feeding them, and making a separate enclosure for them), khlarti (knot) > dakhlartva (knotted)... naptskveni (peelings) > gaptskvna (to peel)... nardi (gossip or sparrow-hawk), tiali (of light colour), brazi (A dog illness that causes the dog to cough), etli (A harmless, obedient person), lengera (thick strong stick), uniagabo (unpleasant, unsuitable)butia (If a chicken has thick feathers on its ears and looks proud), gazutkhuli (lying flat), khimenji/khenji (Precipitation, sediment), dazaveba (too tired), sheneleba (to reprimand, to punish), gamartva (to train), damotsmeba (passing on), utiktikebs (babbling)... as well as agricultural terms: nadzira/e-i (Garbage accumulated on a silkworm cocoon), neki (The part of an old cart (a wooden cart) that is attached to a sword), sasule (Air outlet hole from the pitcher), ghili (tag), khmali (The part of a plank cart that is lowered into a broken plank and on which ribs are placed). Most of these word forms are found in Gurian with different meanings (sometimes structurally as well). The discussion of the structural-semantic variants of the word form characteristic of the Gurian dialect through comparison and reconciliation with the data of the literary language and other dialects of the Georgian language provides an interesting picture, results not only from the etymological-lexicographic point of view, but also, in general, from the point of view of the history of language development.
Tragic Pages from the Family of Kakutsa Cholokashvili
In August 2024, the centenary of the 1924 popular uprising in Georgia was commemorated, an event aimed at liberating the homeland from Soviet occupation. Due to various circumstances, the uprising ended in failure, accompanied by bloodshed, mass executions, and widespread arrests. The driving spirit and main hero of the uprising was Kakutsa Cholokashvili, who embodied the Georgian knight: a calm, courageous man from Daba. His name has become permanently associated with the heroes who fought for independence and freedom. For a long time, mention of Kakutsa Cholokashvili’s name was taboo. This study seeks to recall several tragic episodes from the life of Kakutsa Cholokashvili’s family—a family that was relentlessly pursued, arrested, and exiled to distant Siberia; some members were executed, while others lived their entire lives in fear and suffering. In particular, this study presents recollections from Kakutsa’s daughters. Tamari recalls: In 1923, the household of Kaikhosro (Kakutsa) Cholokashvili was arrested: his wife Nino Mevginetukhutsesi and their two daughters, 7-year-old Tamari (Cicna) and 3-year-old Keti. Several female relatives, including members of the Sulkhanishvili, Avalishvili, and Mevginetukhutsesi families, were also detained. Cholokashvili himself was threatened: surrender, or your eldest daughter will be buried alive. After a year of inhumane conditions, Nino was informed that the children were free, but no family remained to take them except for their grandfather. The children were initially taken by their grandfather, Ilia Mevginetukhutsesi, who was soon arrested. For a time, their aunt Aniko sheltered them. In the villages of Kakheti, notices were posted threatening anyone who cared for Kakutsa’s children with arrest. During this period of fear, a loyal and courageous person emerged: Babia, the daughter of the family’s former steward, Gio Kitiaishvili, who secretly came at night to provide the children with food, bread, and care. Their grandmother Aneta’s sister, Varo Andronikashvili, only learned of the children’s situation later and brought them to relatives in Telavi, cautioning that if asked, they should claim to have entered without her permission. The children remained there for a year before their mother and grandmother brought them to Tbilisi. No school would accept them, except for School No. 18 under Director Vakhvakhishvili, who bravely admitted them but instructed that no one should reveal their parentage. Tamari recalls: their mother began working as a cleaner in a dispensary but could not endure the harsh conditions. After the war, she secured another job but was dismissed due to her family name. Kakutsa’s wife and children endured immense suffering, including humiliation, hunger, and forced relocations.
A Micromodel of the Epoch in Otar Chkheidze’s „Boriaqi“
The study is based on Otar Chkheidze’s well-known work Boriaqi, which served as the basis for the film The Journey of a Young Composer (director: Giorgi Shengelaia). The writer created artistic-documentary works under the challenging conditions of the Soviet regime, which eventually coalesced into a 24-volume cycle of The Chronicle of Kartli. In Boriaqi, the artistic space of a specific epoch is reflected: „This is the placement of the work within its own context. A literary work embodies the spirit of the work itself and various forms of conflict“ (Gaga Lomidze). For Otar Chkheidze, the theory of distance was unacceptable. His work, structured as a coherent cause-and-effect narrative, possesses a strong political context, recounting the events of the 1924 uprising under the leadership of Kakutsa Cholokashvili. It depicts the brutality of the Red regime and the repressions, showing how the army ravages villages and families: „As if the army were liberators, as if they were saviors, as if they were the steadfast guides to happiness“ (Otar Chkheidze). The prototypes of the characters in Boriaqi, the Itrielis, are the writer’s ancestors. Each phrase spoken by the Itrieli brothers and uncles conveys the character of the epoch, historical wisdom, strategy, hope, and despair. In their deliberations, alongside the depiction of the international environment’s stance toward independent Georgia, the work emphasizes the emotional and political essence of the country’s lost independence: „the sweetness of lost independence and the bitterness of subjugation“, particularly when the government is led by those preaching unhealthy cosmopolitanism. The writer here is not an anonymous narrator; he reasons persuasively and convinces the reader: „Ilia was killed and everything was thrown into chaos, because he was killed, everything fell into disorder. Fate was against us, and we could not cope; it turned against us fatally“ (Otar Chkheidze). Boriaqi serves as a micromodel of its epoch, capturing the transition from the joy of May 26, 1918, to the tragedy of February 25, 1921, when the Eleventh Red Army raised the red flag over Tbilisi. The 1924 uprising, aimed at restoring independence, also ended in ashes. What remained was hope and expectation-the anticipation of a call to save the nation. Each character embodies a significant symbolic role within a system of decoding, from Nikusha Chachanidze, accused of leading a nonexistent conspiracy, to the steward, who could not understand why he ended up among those condemned to death. Within the narratological diversity of the work, the writer unifies the fabula and the plot, narration and history, through the culture of the heart, thus transforming documentary reality into artistic creation. The plot is dynamic: the young composer Nikusha Chachanidze stands as a symbol of hope throughout the story-the hope that, whether today or tomorrow, the struggle will resume and the country will be liberated from the force opposing God, tradition, and national identity. In analyzing the text, we employed an interpretative method. This study is significant in considering the historical context of the literary work and emphasizing the writer’s mission: to depict the character of the epoch under the constraints of Soviet censorship.
One Aspect of Noe Jordania’s Publicistic Work
This study examines Noe Jordania’s perspective on a brief but significant article published by Niko Nikoladze in the journal Kvali on the occasion of the death of Giorgi Tsereteli. Jordania, writing under the pseudonym P. Petridze, responded to Nikoladze’s article, providing a detailed critique. Jordania did not share the views of the renowned Georgian journalist, arguing that Nikoladze had failed to adequately represent Tsereteli’s work and had evaluated it from a narrow, limited perspective. It should also be emphasized that although Jordania criticized this specific article, he still portrayed Niko Nikoladze as a worthy and exemplary figure who devoted forty years selflessly to the service of the nation and the country. After reviewing the article, one may disagree with Jordania’s assessment. The prominent Georgian public figure and publicist Niko Nikoladze provides a concise, yet highly serious and objective evaluation of Giorgi Tsereteli’s work, which often provoked divergent opinions among his contemporaries. It is noteworthy that among Tsereteli’s contemporary critics, Nikoladze offers one of the most realistic and objective conclusions, and his assessments closely align with the opinions of Tsereteli’s eminent contemporary, Akaki Tsereteli. The critical-literary analysis of the „kudabzikoba“ reflected in Giorgi Tsereteli’s literary works-that is, characters embodying the traits of the so-called „autumnal nobility“-was conducted by Niko Nikoladze. As is well known, the artistic depiction of „kudabzikoba“ as a socio-historical and psychological phenomenon in literature was later perfected by the great talent of David Kldiashvili.
An Ethnic-Cultural History Narrated Through Surnames (Based on Ethnographic Materials from Guria and Migrant Families from Guria)
The ethnographic materials preserved in public memory and museum archives, often referred to as „Marital Narratives“, constitute a chronicle documenting the ethnic-cultural history of the Georgian people. Similarly, these narrative materials provide insight into the histories of families that migrated from Guria to various historical-ethnographic regions of Georgia, as well as those who settled in Guria from other areas. The „Marital“ narratives, which reflect ethnic-cultural history, the lived experiences of Georgians, socio-economic and socio-cultural transformations, and reasons for internal migration, preserve numerous realities characteristic of Georgian life. These include the region’s original family lineages, the origins of settlements named after family surnames, monogenic neighborhoods, issues of religious belief and relations with places of worship, blood and fictive kinship ties and the customs they produced, strict intra-family exogamy rules, and other notable social norms. The narratives also reveal the multifaceted expressive potential of the Georgian language. This study compiles the histories of families that have already been documented and additionally analyzes newly collected ethnographic materials concerning families who migrated to Guria from Imereti, Adjara, and Meskheti, as well as Gurian families who relocated to other parts of Georgia. The research examines the religious-cultural practices and linguistic characteristics of these migrant families in the context of the political, social, and economic factors that shaped their migration and settlement. Findings: 1. Insights into the mentality of Georgians as conveyed through various forms of daily and cultural life. 2. The influence of natural and economic conditions on living patterns, lifestyles, and the causes of migration. 3. Actions taken to comparatively alleviate or improve „precarious living conditions“ imposed by external pressures and internal political, social, and economic relationships, including attitudes toward religious beliefs and places of worship. 4. Aspects of kinship and family relationships. 5. The ethnographic lexicon and the multifaceted expressive capacities of the Georgian language. 6. The Georgian people did not accept the loss of freedom passively and, on this basis, „submitted to fate when living elsewhere, in other regions of Georgia“.
Turkish Phraseologisms in the Gurian Mamluk’s Book „New Dialogues“
Phraseologisms are sometimes referred to as figurative expressions, idioms, or set expressions. They represent fixed combinations of words characteristic of a given language, in which the constituent words are linked in such a way that the meaning of the entire phrase can be understood. Phraseologisms occupy a special place within the lexical system of any language. They not only enrich a language’s vocabulary but also reflect the cultural specificities of the people who speak it. In Turkish, a phraseologism is expressed by the term Deyim, while until the 1930s–1940s, the term tabir (expression) was also commonly used. The book New Dialogues by Ioseb Tsilosani is notable for its rich grammatical and lexical diversity. Of particular interest is the variety of phraseologisms presented in the text. Ioseb Tsilosani, son of Lazar, known among Orientalists as Ali-Amed Efendi, had a tragic fate: in 1812, at the age of eight, he was abducted and initially sold to the prominent Ottoman merchant Hasan-Agha, and later to Muhammad-Agha in Cairo. Before returning to his homeland, he underwent a long and challenging life journey. Upon returning, he devoted himself to scholarly work and turned Tbilisi into a kind of center for the study of Eastern languages. In 1856, he published a Russian-French-Turkish conversational dictionary, officially titled New Dialogues in Russian, French, Turkish, and Tatar Languages, with Cyrillic Transcription for the Last Two Languages (Новые разговоры на Российском, Французском, Турецком и Татарском языках с Русским произношением двух последних). Notably, Tsilosani used the term Tatar in reference to Azerbaijani. The 630-page work is organized into four columns, presented in the order: Russian, French, Turkish, and Cyrillic transcription. The dialogues cover various thematic topics, totaling 130 sections, and contain numerous phraseologisms, both expressive of human emotions and of numerical or quantitative concepts. Examples include: Can çekişmek: literally „struggle with the soul“ (can – life, soul; çekişmek – struggle). Signifying torment or suffering; the agony of the spirit. Can vermek: literally „to give the soul“ (can – life, soul; vermek – to give). Refers to death. Başa çıkarmak: literally „to lead to the head“ (baş – head; çıkarmak – to bring out). Refers to completing a task or bringing something to an end. Bir ayağı mezara koymak: literally „to put one foot in the grave“ (bir – one; ayak – foot; mezar – grave; koymak – to place). Refers to being near death.
Iakob Gogebashvili on Guria (Based on his book „The Door of Nature“)
The contribution of the Georgian educator, public figure, and writer Iakob Gogebashvili (1840–1912) to the Georgian nation is invaluable. He played a pivotal role in the education and development of multiple generations. Gogebashvili’s textbooks were used extensively in Georgian schools for many years, among which The Door of Nature (1868) is particularly notable. Gogebashvili placed great importance on the study of Georgia’s history and geography. In The Door of Nature, the regions of Georgia are described individually, covering their borders, relief, water systems, important cities and villages, churches and monasteries, educational institutions, as well as the character and customs of the local population. The aim of this study is to illustrate how Gogebashvili perceived one of Georgia’s most beautiful regions, Guria, highlighting its distinctive features, local color, and its role in Georgia’s cultural and economic life. The main sources for this research are Gogebashvili’s textbook The Door of Nature, Dimitri Kipiani’s memoirs, Kveli Chkhatarai’s work The Annexation of the Principality of Guria to Russia, and Tamar Papava’s book Great Figures in Small Frames. The study employs biographical and historical-cultural methodologies. According to Gogebashvili, in the 19th century Guria was „a small district of the Kutaisi Governorate-Ozurgeti Mazra“-with a population of about 100,000. Gurians mostly lived in rural areas, practicing agriculture; pastoralism was limited due to the lack of pastures. Their main food consisted of corn and maize, while bread was grown only in small quantities along the Rioni River. Gogebashvili also describes the unique features of viticulture in Guria, where vines were typically grown on tall trees, mostly on mulberry trees (murkhani). Although largely left to grow naturally, in some areas excellent wine was produced. Additionally, Gogebashvili provides detailed descriptions of the Gurians’ dwellings, clothing, lifestyle, character traits, and particular dedication to education. In The Door of Nature, Guria and its people are portrayed vividly and emotionally, with facts presented accurately and reliably. Today, these descriptions serve as important historical sources. The Door of Nature is a national textbook that played a crucial role in shaping the education and national consciousness of future generations.
Gurian Dialect Vocabulary in Zurab Gorgiladze’s Poetry
The present study examines the distinctive features of Gurian dialect vocabulary in the work of the contemporary Georgian poet Zurab Gorgiladze. The aim of the research is to analyze the role of dialectisms in shaping the poet’s artistic language and their significance in enriching the lexical repertoire of the Georgian language. The study provides a detailed analysis of specific Gurian dialectisms, including „ortsokhebi“, „lafaro“, „kvendghi“, „bghesi“, „dvrini“, „katari“, and „pushti“. Based on etymological investigation, it was determined that most of these dialectisms are related to Old Georgian or common Kartvelian roots. The research demonstrates that Gorgiladze employs dialect vocabulary not merely as a stylistic device, but also as a significant instrument for preserving cultural heritage. The poet successfully integrates dialectisms into complex poetic forms, where they frequently appear as key elements of the verse, enhancing the emotional impact of the poetry. The results of this study are important both for the analysis of contemporary Georgian poetry and for the development of dialectology and lexicology.
Peculiarities of strategic communications during the 1924 uprising
The August Uprising of 1924 was a pivotal moment in the Georgian national liberation movement—a bold attempt to restore the country’s lost independence. Soviet historians, and later many foreign scholars influenced by them, often dismissed this event as mere Menshevik adventurism, attributing it to romanticism and downplaying the Georgian people’s struggle for freedom. The release of archival documents long hidden from researchers has since revealed many new nuances. Numerous studies, books, monographs, and articles have been written on the uprising, especially in connection with its centenary. Based on these materials, this article examines the peculiarities of the strategic communications employed by the rebel leadership. The failure of the uprising, like that of many ambitious undertakings, prompts reflection on the causes behind it. Many of these causes were linked to shortcomings in communication. What strategy did the planners of the uprising devise, and how effectively was it implemented? This article identifies recurring patterns typically used by rebels to uphold conspiracy rules: illegal printing presses and the distribution of proclamations; organized meetings at designated locations; secret apartments and passwords; counter-surveillance and early warning systems for security; social networks of supporters, agents, and trusted families; material support; and international connections. The greatest challenge lay in the geographical dispersion of insurgents across different parts of Georgia and the difficulty of maintaining communication with the government in exile. The article also draws a parallel with the actions of the Georgian Special Commission, emphasizing its numerical superiority and extensive agency network in Tbilisi and throughout the Caucasus. Although the strategic communications of the national liberation fighters were based on sound principles and driven by high patriotic motives, the element of surprise was lost (at the decisive moment, barely 60 of Cholokashvili’s 600-man squad could be assembled for battle). Disunity among the rebel leaders, combined with the overwhelming numerical advantage of Soviet forces, their repressive experience, and the sheer brutality of their response, proved decisive factors in the uprising’s failure.
David and Constantine Mkheidze (A Study of the Alagi Martvili Text)
Glo In 729–730 CE, Murvan ibn Muhammad, a relative of Maslama, invaded the Caucasus with an army of 120,000. The Georgians called him „K’ru“, while the Armenians referred to him as „Avanashar“ — meaning „the devastator“. After subduing the forces of Kartli, the invaders moved into western Georgia, pillaged Egrisi and Tsikhe-Goji, captured the regional leaders David and Constantine Mpheidze, and finally reached the fortress of Anakopia, where the leaders of Kartli — Miri, Archil — and the Abkhazian ruler Leon had taken refuge. This event is described somewhat differently by Ivane Javakhishvili, who relied on the words of Juansher, while Arab, Armenian, and Byzantine historians provide no account of this campaign. The text was first studied by M. Sabinin and published in his book Georgia’s Paradise. Subsequently, it was republished several times by K. Kekelidze, S. Qubaneishvili, and others, although there are no significant differences among these editions. The aim of this study is to determine the location of David and Constantine’s martyrdom based on the available texts. It can be inferred that David and Constantine were tortured near the Rioni River and that „their bodies were thrown into a lake (formed by the powerful Rioni River)“, above which stood the churches of Cosmas and Damian. The present-day course of the Rioni River does not allow for identification of this lake, which is believed to have been the „K’ure“. However, in historical illustrations preserved in the National Library archives, the lake and surrounding sites are clearly depicted. These structures were built in the 1830s and 1910s, and the lake, „formed by the powerful Rioni River“, is consistently featured at the center. As of 1914, on the left bank of the Rioni — where today stand the Court of Appeals, the synagogue, St. George’s Church, and Mtsvane Kvavili — the lake mentioned by an unknown author existed. After the construction of the hydroelectric station on the Rioni, the lake disappeared, though its contours remain observable as a dry, barren area where the saints’ remains were thrown. This location lies beneath the present-day Court of Appeals. Therefore, based on the evidence, there is no doubt about the site of David and Constantine’s torture or the appearance of this portion of the Rioni River in the relatively recent past. It can confidently be identified as the „Alagi Martvili“, located near the current Court of Appeals (on the Rioni side), in the lower right corner between the synagogue and St. George’s Church, with the so-called lake at its center.